Age
of Enlightenment
“Mankind’s final coming
of age, the emancipation of human consciousness from an immature state of
ignorance and error.”
-Immanuel
Kant (1784)
The Age of
enlightenment is the age where Western Europe witnessed cultural and
intellectual development and mankind was emerging from centuries of ignorance
into a new age enlightened by reason, science, and respect for humanity. It
began during seventeenth century and reached to its height in the eighteen
century. Philosophy, art, religion, literature and political theory all had
tendencies towards intellectual rise. This era is also referred as the age of
reason because its emphasis on rational, secular and scientific world views.
The Enlightenment
followed the Medieval era. The Medieval era was characterized by staunch
religious fervor and the authority of Church. It was era of superstition and irrationality.
By the 1500s the Scientific Revolution had begun. It was the time when
curiosity spread around the world which lead to innovations. Initially even the
church encouraged the such curiosity, out of belief that studying the world was
a form of piety and admiring the God’s work. It was seen only as a tool of
goodness and appreciation of God’s creation. People who questioned faith or religious
practices were brutally punished.
Thinkers
of the Enlightenment convinced that human reason could discover the natural
laws of the universe and bring scientific progress and they believed scientific
and industrial advancement heralded a new era of egalitarianism and progress of
human kind. Scientific progress brought
industrial revolution, people began to travel more and witness the various
cultures of the world. People began to
doubt and question the established institutions. Particularly Church faced
sharp criticism as it stands as a stumbling block which restrains the forward
march of human reason.
Enlightenment intellectuals tore down the
flawed set of beliefs set by ancients and maintained by the church. Many
intellectuals began to practice variety of deism, which rejects the organized
and conventional religion in favor of more personal and spiritual kind of
faith. Trust in universal and scientific
rules relying on the human reason resulted in rapidly dissipating the darkness
of superstition, prejudice, and barbarity. Intellectual and scientific progress
was freeing humanity from its earlier reliance on unexamined traditions and
mere authority and opened a prospect of progress towards making this world a
better place to live. For the first time
in western history, the hegemony of political and religious leaders was
weakened that people began to openly criticize their authority and express
their views publicly. Criticism and argumentation was the new models of
conversation. As the people began to give importance to the individuality it
paved way to many revolutions in 18th and 19th century.
There were many variations in the
concepts of enlightenment thinkers. Their outlook was different. The only
similarity was their emphasis on importance to rationality and individualism.
Their efforts were to build a better world free from religious intolerance,
irrational beliefs, prejudices, superstitions. The enlightenment ideals were
the inspiration behind American and French revolutions. They paved way to the
major literary movement of 19th century Romanticism.
Enlightenment was
actually celebration of ideas. They began to see these ideas applied to every
segment of life and society, with huge ramifications for citizens and rulers
alike. Many enlightenment ideas were political in nature. They began to
consider freedom and democracy as the fundamental rights of people, not as a
gift by monarchies. Egalitarianism was the keyword behind all the
movements. Citizens began to see leaders
as subjected to shortcomings and criticism. Experiments with elected
representatives began to practice. Believed that combined rationality of a
society would lead to the best choice and whole problems can be solved in that
way. The American and French revolutions
were directly inspired by the enlightenment ideas.
One
of the most beneficial effects of Industrial revolution was the surge in amount
of reading material available to general public and available of leisure time. Consequently,
the cost of reading materials decreased to the point that literature was no
longer the sole purview of aristocrats and wealthy merchants. Literacy rates
have risen dramatically during the eighteenth century. New libraries began to
establish and people started to argue and discuss about the current affairs.
The day were literature was considered
as a sacred and open to only few were gone days and books began to access to
every nook and corner.
Francis
Bacon, Isaac Newton, Rene Descartes and Benedict Spinoza were
considered as the pioneer of Enlightenment thoughts. Bacon composed
philosophical treatises which would form the basis of the modern scientific
method. He was a logician, pointing out the false
pathways down which human reason often strays. Bacon worked in the realm of
ideas and language whereas Isaac Newton was a pure scientist in the modern
sense. Newton
relied on Observation and Testing to prove his theories. Newton’s Principia,
completed in 1687, is the foundation of the entire science of physics. This
mechanistic view of the universe, a universe governed by a set of unchanging
laws, raised the ire of the Church fathers. However, the mode of inquiry which
Bacon and Newton had pioneered became the much more influential than church’s
teachings.
The
Enlightenment movement was most prevalent in European nations like England,
France, and Germany. In England the enlightenment thought is usually traced
from Bacon through John Locke to the 18th century thinkers such as
William Godwin. Rene Descartes, Montesquieu, Voltaire and Denis Diderot were
the major enlightenment figures of French enlightenment. In Germany Leibniz,
Immanuel Kant and John, in America Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson influenced
the Enlightenment ideas and shaped the American constitution.
Key Thinkers
Bacon: was an English philosopher and spokesperson who
developed the inductive method or Bacanian method of scientific investigation.
It was a more effective path to knowledge than the medieval reliance on
deduction, whose premises were handed down by the authority of tradition. Bacon’s
major works were The Advancement of
Learning (1605) and The New Organon (1620),
in which he formulated the method of inductive method which stresses
observation and reasoning as a means for coming to general conclusions.. He
advocated that the method of induction is a more authentic method than the
method of deduction which was followed during the medieval age. Denying early
methods Bacon asserts that we must begin anew alternative foundation. He warns
that human mind has been misled by “idols” or false notions.
René Descartes: called as father of modern
philosophy often challenged the basic medieval philosophy. He revolutionized algebra and geometry and
made the famous philosophical statement “I think, therefore I am.” Descartes
developed a deductive approach to philosophy using math and logic that still
remains a standard for problem solving. He was skeptical in his work Discourse on method aboout everything,
even the senses. He doubted the reliability of senses and imagined the entire
world might be a delusion. Descartes made distinction between the mind and the
body. He defines that the mind is something which can think, whereas the body
belongs to the material world.
Baruch
Spinoza: was a prominent Dutch enlightenment figure who had
closely studied the works of Descrates. His views were rational and unorthodox
which lead to expulsion from his own Jew community in 1656. He also criticized
Christian beliefs and Bible too through his unorthodox views. He believed
Descartes’s Deductive mode and had a mechanistic view on universe. He
contrasted with Descartes in the view about mind and matter. He also argued
that the universe is composed of a single substance, which he viewed as God. In
his work, the Ethics (1677), he urged
that the highest good consists in the rational mastery over one’s own passions
and ultimately in the acceptance of the order and harmony in nature.
These
three figures, Bacon, Descartes, and Spinoza from different parts of the world
initiated the idea of enlightenment. Empiricism and rationalism was buzzword of
these philosophers and which is considered as the hallmark of Enlightenment
philosophy. Bacon stressed in experience and observation on the world, whereas
Descartes emphasized in the use of reason to arrive at the clear notions about the
world.
Another
stream of Enlightenment thought was the Materialism mostly found in the
theories of the Thomas Hobbes. He was an English philosopher best
known for his work Leviathan.
He initiated the political philosophy in Enlightenment thoughts. His
works tries to explore the human nature. . He proposed a materialistic view of the universe, even that of
the mind. Hobbes argued that sensation is caused by the impact and interaction
of small particles. In his work, he justifies the absolutist rule. To explain
his stand, he says that human nature is essentially bad. Hobbes’s theory
is that all humans are inherently self-driven and evil and that the best form
of government is thus a single, all-powerful monarch to keep everything in
order. He argues that human nature is inherently bad and that humans will
remain in a constant a state of war, fighting for power and material resources,
unless awed by a single great power.
John Locke is a one of the
most influential British political Enlightenment philosopher. He is often
considered as the ‘Father of Classical Liberalism’. He is also one of the first
of the British empiricists who followed the tradition of Bacon. Thinkers like
Voltaire, Rousseau, etc. were influenced by his ideals in his Essays An Essay Concerning Human Understanding and Two Treatises on Civil Government both
published in 1690, Locke denied Descartes’ view that the mind has “innate
ideas,” or ideas that it is simply born with. Rather, the he consider mind like
a blank slate upon which our experience of the world is written thus man can
subsequently learn and improve through conscious effort. All of our knowledge must
come from experience of the physical world, through sensory
perception. Locke’s chief argument against innate ideas is that if there is such
ideas existed, they would be universal in all men. However, he argues, there is
not one single idea that is universally inherent in all.
David Hume was an empiricist along with the
Locke. He further developed Locke’s empiricist notion towards more radical and
Skeptical conclusions. He was a Scottish philosopher. A Treatise
on Human Nature published in 1739 is his most important work. Hume argued that we only know the
ideas, not the external world where Locke’s argument was that through ideas our
mind knows the external world. Hume believes that there are no innate ideas or
capacities within us, but that everything is acquired through experience,
including our capacity to reason and hold ideas. Both Locke and Hume denied the
Aristotelian concept of “substance” as the underlying substratum of reality.
Hume argues that there are no essences actually in the world. Hence he questioned the entire notion of
human identity itself.
Samuel
Johnson was an English critic, poet, essayist and moralist. He
is best known for the dictionary he has compiled Dictionary of the English Language. It was
the first comprehensive dictionary in English. Lives of the English Poets is another famous work of Dr
Johnson. His most famous poem is The Vanity of Human Wishes. He is also known for his essays The
Rambler, The Idler etc. Johnson
affirmed to the classical notions of literature based on reason and truth. He
was also adamant on the moral function of literature.
Giambattista
Vico was an Italian Enlightenment political philosopher
and historian. He criticized the progress of modern rationalism and was an
advocate of classical antiquity. He is best known his work the New Science.
He was an advocate of rhetoric and humanism. Opposed to Cartesian analysis Vico
was a predecessor of systemic and complexity thinking. He was a counter
Enlightenment thinker. He claims himself
as influenced by the Bacon and Malebranche. Vico wrote many works emphasising
the importance of Rhetoric.
Jean Jacques Rousseau was a
philosopher of the 18th century France. Rousseau was an important figure
of the Enlightenment era. His political philosophy had influenced Enlightenment
in Europe especially France. He was against all sorts of powers and conventions
that govern human beings and believed in the individuality. A
Discourse on the Sciences and Arts and The Discourse on
the Origin of Inequality are his two major philosophical works. Through his
works, he proposed that human beings are inherently good and that they are
corrupted by the complex historical events. . Rousseau was a strong advocate for social
reform of all kinds. He fostered the French Enlightenment philosophy. Later
philosophers like Immanuel Kant were much influenced by Rousseau.
Voltaire, Denis Diderot and Jean d’Alembert
were the other major figures of the Enlightenment in France. Voltaire popularised
the theories of Newton and Locke among the public. He was a Enlightenment
satirist who criticized the religion and major philosophical tendencies of his
time. His major philosophical work Candide mocked the determinism, optimism
and rationalism of the German philosopher Gottfried Leibniz, who believed in a
pre-established harmony in the world. He says in Candide that to know the world one must travel and experience.
Voltaire criticises the rational justifications of the war, intolerance of the
religions, madness of the masses, greed which undermines the contentment and
all the institutions of inequality. Voltaire was a champion of self expression
among the enlightenment philosophers.
Diderot and d’Akembert were the other
leading members of the French enlightenment. Diderot was a French philosopher,
critic and a writer. He is best known today as the editor and contributor to Encyclopedie along with Jean d’Alembert.
In Germany Gotthold Lessing and
Moses Mendelssohn were the flag holders of the Enlightenment philosophy. Both of
them propounded philosophies of religious tolerance.
Immanuel
Kant was a
German skeptic philosopher. He was
influenced by the David Hume’s theories and brought the school of thought into
a higher level. He argues that everyone born with his own innate idea and the
perceptions of the world. Reality is in
the eyes of person and we can never know which is “real” and which our
“perception” is. So Kant refuses to accept the validity of “reasoning” on the
argument that ‘No one actually knows what other people is thinking about’. Kant combined
the empiricist philosophy of Britain and rationalist philosophy of Europe.
Kant’s continued to influence German philosophers long after his death.
Hegel, Marx, and Nietzsche all significantly borrow from Kant’s concept of
thinking.
Edmund Burke was a political
activist and philosopher. His Reflections
on the Revolution in France
(1790) was a scathing attack on numerous aspects of the French Revolution of
1789. He wrote many political and philosophical essays. He follows Hume and Addison and adopts an
empiricist perspective.
Marry Wollstonecraft
Often known as the first Feminist writer, was an advocate of women’s
rights and philosopher. . Her best known work A Vindication of the
Rights of Woman is considered as the
foundational text of western feminism. . Her other famous work Vindication of the Rights
of Men was a reply to Burke’s Reflections on the Revolution in France.
Being as an enlightened thinker Mary Wollstonecraft
asserts the equality between men and women. She argues that if women appear to
be inferior it is only because of lack of education.
While
she did not directly write on literature, she explored issues such as the
nature of women, their innate abilities and their characteristics as arising
from social and economic circumstances, and their capacity for education. She disregards
the power of heredity. And has the view that both men and women should be
treated as rational beings and treated equally.
Conclusion:
Enlightenment is a philosophical movement which dominated the
Intellectual arena of Europe in 18th century. Empiricism and
rationalism was the characteristics of this age. Egalitarianism and Individualism
were the keywords. Every field had the tendencies towards Enlightenment rise. Francis
Bacon, Isaac Newton, Rene Descartes and Benedict Spinoza were
considered as the pioneer of Enlightenment thoughts. People began
to hold secular views and think rationally and scientifically. People began to
question the age old established institutions including religion and monarchy.
Enlightenment was actually
celebration of ideas. They began to see these ideas applied to every segment of
life and society. Hence this era is also referred as the age of reason. The
major part of the neoclassical movement coincided with the 18th
century Age of Enlightenment. Although many thinkers advocated this philosophy,
they did not think uniformly. They only shared the idea of thinking based on
the reason.
Citizens began to see
leaders as subjected to shortcomings and criticism. Argumentation and criticism
developed as the new mode of communication. The American and French revolutions
were directly inspired by the enlightenment ideas. The Enlightenment ideals
continued till early 19th century and paved way for the Romanticism.
Bibliography
Bibliography
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Albert, Edward. History of English Literature. New Delhi: Oxford
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Habib, M. A. R. A History of Literary Criticism:
From Plato to the Present. New Delhi: Blackwell, 2006. Print
Gay,Peter(1996), The Enlightenment: An Interpretation, W.W.Norton&Company,ISBN0-393-00870-3
Narayanan, M.S. English Literary Criticism and Theory; An
Introduction History, Hyderabad: Orient Blackswan, 2008.
Nayar K Pramod. A Short History of English Literature. New
Delhi: Cambridge University
Press, 2009. Print.
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