jemima, dark ages and middle ages

THE DARK AGES AND THE MIDDLE AGES

The saga of Western literary criticism began from the Classical age of by great thinkers like Plato and Aristotle and has reached contemporary theories like Post-colonial Criticism, Psychoanalytic Criticism, New Criticism, Reader Response Criticism etc.  During those particular periods, the literatures were equally influenced by linguistic, intellectual, religious traditions of the time.

The early periods of Western literature can be classified as follows: the very first Classical Age spanned fro 1200 BCE to 455 CE and the period as marked with the literary contributions of great Greek and Roman writers, playwrights, and philosophers like Homer, Plato, Aristotle, Sophocles, etc. Next came the Medieval Period spanning approximately from 455 CE to 1485 CE. The Medieval period can be roughly classified into the Dark Ages or Early Middle age and the Late or High Medieval period. There is always debate above the boundaries of the periods. Still it is estimated that Dark Ages spanned from 455 to 1066 CE and the Late Medieval period spanned from the time of Norman conquest in Britain till 1480s. After the dull middle ages came the era of Renaissance and Reformation which lasted till 1660s.

           During the Dark Ages there was cultural, economic and literary deterioration in the Western Europe. It was because of the fall of the Roman Empire. Comparing with the previous and later periods of “light”, therefore, this age can be suitably called as the dark era. The history written on this period is obscure and not enough. There was scarcity of written records and artistic and cultural output compared to earlier and later times. Nothing came as a considerable literary criticism There was always this confusion on the boundaries of the period. Some historians counted it from the fall of Roman empire till the European renaissance. But as more accomplishments on literary and cultural spheres were recognized in the later period of the Dark Ages, the period got divided into two as Dark Age and the Middle Age. Majority of historians consider the whole of the Medieval period as a transition between the Roman Times and the Renaissance.

BRIEF HISTORY OF THE PERIOD

During the second half of the 2^nd Century the population the Roman empire dropped considerably, a fall from about 65 million to 50 million. The reason for this drop is estimated as the global cold front that swept the earth over the course of 250 years. By the 4^th Century, the fall of Rome was almost complete as they lost control over a large area of the empire. Rome got defeated in almost all the wars fought during this period and other stronger groups conquered the parts of the empire. According to the historians, Rome’s decline was complete in the year 476 AD. The new, barbaric conquerors of the declined empire replaced the civilized culture of Rome. The Bulgarians were the most powerful among the conquerors. During the middle of the 7^th Century, more Islamic invasions occurred in the territories of the past empire and they exercised great influence over the populations. The temperature got warm up and agriculture again began to flourish by the 8^th Century causing an increase in population and agricultural farms. As the life of the people settled down, during the second half of the Century an increasing focus on education was observed. During the 850s, Italy got split into the hands of Franks and Muslim people. Charlemagne who led the Frankish army established France and he helped         spreading Christianity over the west of Europe. 865 AD saw the Vikings invading and establishing their Kingdom of England in Britain. By the beginning of the 10^th Century, Muslim nations invented abacus and brought the knowledge to the west. Christianity grabbed a strong hold over Europe; the lands got settled into kingdoms; there was a pace of peace without wars and by 1066 with the Norman conquest in Britain, the Dark Ages is calculated to have came to an end.

In 1066, Norman French armies conquered England under William I under whose rule the country of England changed forever. In 1096, the Crusades started between Holy Roman empire and Muslims over the Holy land. There were several crusades fought in next 200 years. In 1215, King John of England signed the Magna Carte which shifted the power from monarchy to people. In 1337, The Hundred years war began between England and France. The Black Death spread terror in whole Europe in 1347 which killed about third of the population. In 1444, Johnnes Guttenberg invented the printing press signaling the beginning of Renaissance. By 1453, the Eastern Roman Empire or the Byzantium Empire got captured by Ottoman Empire and Constantinople was defeated. Thus the Middle Ages came to an end giving way for the lighted era of Renaissance.

RELIGIOUS INFLUENCE

In the Classical age, man was considered central of the Universe. Whole discussions of philosophy and literature was based around man. There was no belief in a God or a religion and this was termed Paganism. From the first century onwards, owing to the birth, crucifixion and resurrection of Jesus Christ, more focus was turned to study of theology. Christianity spread wide through the preaching of Christ’s disciples. The centre of discussion was shifted from man to God. Man began to be considered as the fallen one. They began to believe in life after death. Big academies run by known scholars slowly went out of the scene and knowledge and scholarship began t concentrate on the spreading monasteries. More written works came out on religion and theology. There were also mystical writings getting popularized exploring and explaining the thresholds of mystical experience. As, in due time, the importance of vernaculars increased, and the latin versions got translated into vernaculars, common people also got the chance of reading such theological and mystical works.

THOUGHTS: Neo Platonism was a tradition of philosophy practiced from the 3^rd to 6^th centuries which was heavily influenced by the theories of Plato. Plotinus was the pioneer of this philosophical tradition. Their ideas were more religious than Plato. They overcame the gap between ideal and reality. Neo Platonism sought to describe the “One God”. This tradition had great influence in the middle ages.

Scholastic philosophy was a medieval school of philosophy or a method of learning theology emphasized by the medieval academies and monasteries. Logic, metaphysics and semantics were combined as a single discipline. Scholasticism wasmore applied in medieval Christian theology.

LITERARY FIGURES:

 St. Augustine of Hippo (354- 430) was born to a Christian mother and a Pagan father and so he was not baptized. During his schooling he was attracted to Manichaeism, an early Christian philosophy of extreme metaphysical and moral dualism, which believed that the evil is as powerful as the good. He was also influenced by Neoplatonists as Plotinus. Once he listened to the preaching of Bishop Ambrose of Milan and got baptized in 387. Being a prolific writer, he wrote many commentaries on Bible and polemics against prominent heresies of the time including Manichaeism, magisterial philosophies etc. His most influential “On Christian Teaching” is a treatise dealing with theory of criticism and Biblical interpretation which is considered a central text of medieval philosophy and aesthetics. During his time Christianity was just beginning to establish and there was a lack of fixed Scripture. He tried to authorize the interpretation of Scriptures.

Moses Maimonides (1135 – 1204) was a significant figure in Jewish hermeneutics. He insisted on an allegorical interpretation of Torah like Augustine. He was among the handful of Jewish and Islamic scholars who reintroduced the works of Aristotle in Europe. He did extensive eclectic writings, wrote lengthy ambitious works on medicine, theology, philosophy and commentaries on Jewish law.

Thomas Aquinas’s (1225 – 1274) “Summa Theologica” is a strong work on the faith and reason of Platonism, Aristotlianism, Hellenism and Christian thought and alsonit marks a high point of the Scholastic Philosophy and theology of the European Middle Ages. Born in a n be family in central Italy, he did his schooling at a Benedictine Monastery and later joined the Dominican friars who dedicated their whole life for learning and preaching. He took a degree of doctor in theology and till death spend his life teaching, preaching, writing and travelling whole of Europe. He wrote more than 60 books on philosophy, theology, ethics, exegesis and commentaries on various books of Bible and on Aristotle. He had also written defenses of Christian faith against the Jews and Muslims of Spain.

Dante Alighieri (1265- 1321) is considered the major Italian poet of the time and one among the pioneers in vernacular literary writings. Dante’s Divine Comedy is considered the greatest work in Italian and a masterpiece in World literature. During the time, most works of literature where written only in Latin which made it difficult for the laymen to read and understand. Dante was one among the prominent writers who insisted on writing in vernaculars whose path was followed bu later Italian writers like Petrarch and Boccaccio. Dante invented the rhyme scheme terza-rima. His ideas on Hell and Heaven inspired a large body of Western literature and he became an influence to later writers like Milton, Chaucer, Tennyson, etc. Dante is recognized as the father of Italian language.

Petrarch (1304- 1374) is called the father of Humanism and the father of Renaissance. He is also considered one of the father of the Italian language. He wasa devoted classical scholar and poet. His writings include the well known “Odes to Laura” his love. Petrarch was the one who coined the name ‘Dark Ages’ for the Early Middle Ages. For Petrarch, compared to the Classical Antiquity, the centuries after the Roman fall was “dark”.

Giovanni Boccaccio (1313 – 1375) is also considered the founding fathers of Renaisance. He was a lawyer,a businessman but he loved most to write poems. His greates work Deccameron claimed fame over 600 years and also influenced other poets like Petrarch. He was also a humanist. The works of both Dante and Boccaccio tried to bridging the gap between secular and religious writings.

Christine de Pizan (1364 - 1430) was a female representation from the Italian French late medieval period. She was a poet and a prose writer and her works were intended to give practical advice for women. Forty one works came out of her pen and her immediate need of writing was to support her family. She is considered an early feminist by the scholars of the day. Her allegorical and didactic treatises were autobiographical. In them were the reflections of her humanist and scholastic knowledge tradition. She had the support of French and English royal patrons. She had great writings mostly emphasized the importance of women in society.

In British literature, King Alfred the Great (849 – 899) was reputed as a learned and merciful man who recognized the need of spreading knowledge among his kinsmen and he attempted the translations of many works on different disciplines to old English. Chaucer (1343 – 1400)  who is considered the father of English literature was the greatest English poet of the Middle Ages and was also a known philosopher. His best known work is The Canterbury Tales. He was also a crucial figure who insisted on the development of vernacular, the Middle English. Beowulf written between 975 and 1025 AD is the oldest surviving Old English epic poem and most important work of Old English Literature. The author of the work with 3182 alternating lines and describing the legend of Beowulf, is anonymous.

The break up of feudalism, emergence of national monarchies in France, England and Spain, cultural development due to more secular education, rising importance of reason…all these facts claimed an end to the dull middle ages. A newly spirited age of light came into being what we call as Renaissance which looked back into the age of Antiquity for inspiration.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Nagarajan, M. S, English Literary Criticism and Theory: An Introduction: Hyderabad: Orient Blackswan Pvt. Ltd, 2008.

Waugh, Patricia. Literary Theory and Criticism: United States: Oxford University Press, 2009.

Habib, M.A.R. A History of Literary Criticism From Plato to Present. USA. Blackwell Publishing, 2005

Anjali Vijayan, A2 Dark ages

   DARK AGES AND MIDDLE AGES

                                 “Dark Ages” is the name given to the period  in Europe after the decline of the Roman Empire. This fall of the Empire occurred in fifth century. The Barbarians from the north and east destroyed the buildings and the arts in Europe which existed during the Roman times. So, as there was a dearth in the literature, arts, education, trade etc. this period is referred to as “Dark Ages”. In those times monasteries were the only source of knowledge. The Eastern Empire was not invaded by the Barbarians. So arts and culture was flourishing there.

                During the Dark Ages, there were many changes.

·         There was no literature, arts, education etc.

·         The countries were into areas governed by feudal lords. There were a number of Barbaric tribes. The Kings had less power.

·         Tribes were given importance. People were loyal to a tribe and not to a country. The Germanic legal traditions differed- they had individual laws for the tribes. There was no written literature produced during this time.

·          Church had the authority. So, it unified the people of Europe. It was the Church which preserved the ancient writings.

                                       The Middle Ages or the Medieval Period was the period between the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the Renaissance. It was an age of theological learning. Medieval theology was based on the nature of reality and the eternal life. A plethora of factors contributed to making of the Middle Ages – evolving traditions of Christianity, the socio-political culture of the Germanic tribes, vestiges of the Roman administrative and legal system, the legacy of classical age. Christianity had an upper hand in the development of medieval civilization. Early Christianity was heterogenous, containing a large number of sects with a disparity in their beliefs and practices, and they were always engaged in disputes. In order to settle this, many church councils were convened. It established the Athanasian view of the Trinity as orthodox  Christian doctrine. Some of the major figures who were in these debates were the Gregory of Nyssa, Athanasius of Alexandria, Gregory of Nazianzus, John Chrysostom, Augustine of Hippo etc. Jerome, one of the greatest Christian thinkers, is credited with the translation of the Bible from the original languages into Latin. The Church was the only institution which had enjoyed continuity from the Antiquity to the Middle Ages. Latin remained the language of scholarship and law during the Middle Ages. The Germanic tribes who invaded the empire retained Latin as their means of communication wherever they settled. However, vernacular languages and literatures grew in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. But this didn’t lead to the dissolution of Latin. It began to be spoken as two  languages, by the learned and the folks respectively. An important aspect of Christianity was monasticism. Founded in the East by St. Basil and in the West by St. Benedict. It entailed regimen for poverty, humility, labor and devotion. It was monks who wrote most of the books and transmitted early manuscripts. The monks later develop into regular clergy. The slave mode of production led to a contempt of manual labor.

                                         Many of the Germanic peoples were settled in various parts of the Western Roman Empire long before the decline of Rome. Vandals took up the city. The lifestyle was primitive and a system of feudalism developed. In the Early Middle Ages, commerce and industry declined and land came to be concentrated in the hands of a few. Famine and diseases were on the spread. The economic system then was limited to a local trade. This hierarchical way of life was sanctioned by the Church, as it was a place where every person was considered part of the larger and was divinely established. One of the most significant figures of the time was Charlemagne. He had established an empire that extended over the western and central Europe. He was crowned by Pope Leo III which signified the formation of the Holy Roman Empire and the influential relationship between the Frankish Dynasty and the papacy. Thus the Empire could achieve both political and religious unity. The intellectual side of the Early Middle Ages were led by two main factors- the heritage of classical thought and the varying relation of developing Christian theology to this heritage. Macrobius and Servius were two influential critics of the Late Roman period who contributed to the knowledge of Neo-Platonism in the Middle Ages. A major thinker was Boethius. His translations of Aristotle’s treatises were of relevance to the thinking in the later Middle Ages.

                                       In the Early Middle Ages, the position of literature and arts were subordinated to the  issues of salvation and preparation of next life. There were two broad approaches to the classical literature with the development of the theology. The first was to distance Christianity from paganism. The second was to continue the Christian appropriation of classical rhetoric and philosophy.  

                                       Also, the Christian theologians Clement and  Origen attempted to reconcile with the Ancient Greek with the tenets of Christianity. Origen formulated a system of allegorical interpretation in accordance with three levels – literal, moral and theological. The thinkers like St. Augustine had a more accommodating view of classical learning and literature. The Church was for a long time, opposed to drama and plays. It was seen to associated with idolatry.

                                      St. Augustine’s work was the one with an in-depth synthesis of the classical and Christian notions. He influenced the traditions of both Roman Catholicism and Protestant thought.

                                     Augustine’s views  was more like Plato’s, for he considered Plato as the greatest philosopher. His aesthetics stood on a modified Platonic framework that spoke of a heightened spiritual realm. Art, which was made of sensous elements was given a lower position, far removed from God, the ultimate source of reality. He is characterized as believing in determinism-only those who belong to the heavenly city, the elect, will attain salvation. Augustine argued that only God can restore the natural state of goodness in which man was created.

                                      In the High Middle Ages, there was an increase of population. Crop yields increased and the trade was also flourishing. The Later Middle Ages witnessed progress in many levels. There was economic revival. Feudalism had attained more stability. The contractual relation in a feudal society was between  a lord and a vassal. By the later Middle Ages, cities had grown. The cities were dominated by two types of organization- the merchant guild and the artisan guild. The guild system was in part based on Christian doctrines stemming from the Church fathers and Aquinas who advocated fair prices, and contributed towards the welfare of the community. The medieval world divided the organization of the knowledge into the trivium and the quadrivium. The trivium included grammar, rhetoric and logic and the quadrivium- music, arithmetic, geometry and astronomy. These were called the seven liberal arts, the number seven reminding the seven sacraments, the seven pillars of wisdom, the seven virtues, the seven heavens. The major figures of this period were Plotinus, St. Augustine, who lived in 300 C.E, St. Thomas Aquinas etc. It was Aquinas who made a demarcation between the realm of faith and the realm of reason. Dante’s Divine Comedy and William Langland’s Piers Plowman spoke of divinity. There was a bridging of gap between secular and religious.

Geoffrey de Vinsauf

Vinsauf’s treatise Poetrica Nova  is a work on the rules and practice of poetry, along with the study of great poets. It became an important training manual of poets in Europe from the thirteenth century till well into the Renaissance.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Day, Gary. Literary Criticism- A New History. Edinburgh University Press: Edinburgh. 2008

Habib, M.A.R. A History of Literary Criticism. Atlantic Publishers and Distributers.New Delhi. 2006

Yasir Siddeequee - Assignment On Middle Ages and Dark Ages

Thursday, 10 September 2015

Yasir Siddeequee.AC,           A2 Dark Age and Middle Age

         

LCL051525

                                 ASSIGNMENT ON DARK AGES AND MIDDLE AGES

INTRODUCTION

History is not always progressive.  There might be the time of total dryness and society gone backward. The socio-political conditions of a land might have caused stagnation to the development of a society. The middle ages or dark ages is the time used denote the 5^th century to 15^th century of British history. Whenever the medieval period of English literature is mentioned, the term Dark Age will be mentioned.  The period between the fall of Rome and the Renaissance is generally termed as the Dark ages of English literary history.  As the name denotes, term Dark Age emphasizes the cultural and economic deterioration that occurred in Western Europe following the decline of the Roman Empire

DARK AGES

Middle Age in European history, Middle Age is a historical period of one thousand years from the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the Fifth Century to the beginning of the Renaissance in the late ^15th century. The collapse of Roman Empire caused a drastic set back in Political, economic and social life of European life. The Term ‘Dark Ages’ is used to refer the earliest part of middle ages to emphasis the cultural, political and economic setback that occurred in western  Europe following the decline of Roman Empire.  The term "Dark Age" derives from the Latin word saeculum obscurum, applied by Caesar Baronius in 1602 to a disturbed period in the 10th and 11th centuries. The concept of Dark ages was introduced by Italian scholar Francesco Petrarch (1930) to denounce the Latin literature of that period. He was an Italian who was influenced by the greatness of ancient Roman Empire. The modern historians are hesitant to use the term because of its negative implications. There were no significant historical materials about the period between the declines of Romans from Britain to the time of Norman Conquest in 1066 were available. Historian used the term to denote that little historical information was known about this period.  The term once characterized the bulk of the Middle Ages, or roughly the 6th to 13th centuries, as a period of intellectual darkness between extinguishing the "light of Rome" after the end of Late Antiquity, and the rise of the Italian Renaissance in the 14th century

Socio Political conditions of the Dark Age

 The Dark Age in Britain was actually the time between Anglo-Saxon conquest and Norman Conquest. The Anglo-Saxons were basically the inhabitants from Sleswick and the surrounding areas of Denmark and Germany belonged to the Low German branch of Teutonic family conquered Britain and became the dominant people of the land. They were mainly three tribes-Angles,Saxons and Jutes But their common language English united them. Because of this it is considered Anglo-Saxon period as the beginning of English History.They were barbarians. Knew nothing about civilization they attacked whom they considered their enemies and found pleasure in the destruction of Roman-British civilization.  So England lost touch with rich Roman sciences, Arts and letters. The European society was forced to fall in clutches of feudalism with the fall of political powers. The continuous fights between barbarians, Vikings and feudal nobles destroyed the peace of common men. It was like serfdom for common people and life was typically difficult for peasants and lower cast people. Confusions and chaos were prevailing all around that society. Unlike Roman rule which was marked by the peace and prosperity the English rule was bloody and destructive.

Saxons were warring kingdoms. Tribes competed each other for powers. The Heptarchy or the rule of seven kingdoms during the time had much important in history. Greatest English rulers like King Alfred (871-901) came to rule in this period. He established Wessex as the most powerful kingdom and promoted the growth of English identity. Saxons had a golden era under the leadership of King Alfred. The name ‘England’ itself is the result of  Anglo- Saxons rule. Saxons converted to Christianity in the 7th century and many convents were built across England. Danish or Viking, and fiercely attacked England and it lasted for many decades.   Their society was mainly divided into three classes. The earls, Ceorls, and theowas. Earls were enjoyed high position and believed to be noble in birth. And theowas was servents or slaves and lower in position.

Language and Literature.

Anglo-Saxon is the ancestor of modern English. Anglo-Saxons all talked Old English. This Old English or the Anglo-Saxon belongs to the low Germanic branch of the Teutonic family. It was an Aryan language and had about four dialects. A rich artistic culture was forming in Anglo-Saxons society. Verse preceded the Anglo-Saxon prose.  The Oldest poem in English language is Beowulf believed to have written between the years 700-900 A.D. It is an epic consisting about 3000lines. The author is anonymous and nothing is known It tells the story of a warrior prince, Beowulf from Sweden who helps the king of Danes to kill a monster and its mother. At last Beowulf dies of a mortal wound, pronouncing a warrior prince Wiglaf as his successor.

The poem gives interesting ideas about the life style of Anglo-Saxons. Their love for adventure and fondness for the sea find expression. They fought bravely and had a primitive life style.

Poets focused on the biblical themes. Caedmon who lived in the seventh and Cynewulf from the eighth century considered Bible as their sources of theme. Caedmon's Hymn is considered as the first English poem. Juliana, The Fate of the Apostles, Christ, Elene, The Husband's Message, The Wife's Complaint, The Wanderer and The Dream of the Rood were some of the poems by Cynewulf. The Dream of the Rood is considered Cynewulf's masterpiece.

 Widsith (wide wanderer), Genesis, Exodus, Daniel, and Christ and Satan are some of the famous poems of that period.

A prominent prose writer of the period was Venerable Bede (673-735). He was the first English historian, but he wrote in Latin. His Latin work Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum (Ecclesiastical History of the English People) provided much historical information of the era. King Alfred was a great scholar and he himself rendered Pastoral Care of Pope Gregory the Great into Anglo- Saxon. He was the first one to form English prose. He is considered as the great Saxon ruler.  And it was during his reign the famous Anglo- Saxon Chronicle, a history of England from the Roman invasion to 1154 began to be written. Another book that deals with the period is Ruin of Britain completed in 550 by Celtic cleric Gildas. He describes the destruction occurred to Anglo-Saxon Barbarians.

The Middle Age

Medieval period of European history lasts from the 5^th to 15^th century. The Medieval period is subdivided into the Early, the High, and the Late Middle Ages of which the Early Middle Age is referred to as the Dark Age. Humanist and scholar Petrarch in 1330 referred pre-Christian times as antique or ancient to the Christian period as niva or new.

Socio political conditions of Middle Age

The beginning of the Middle Age in England is marked by the Norman Conquest in 1066 in the historic battle of Hastings (1066 AD) in which, the last of the Saxon kings Harold, was defeated and killed . William the Conquerer was made  new king. The quarrel between the Church and the Crown had been a recurring phenomenon during this period.

A peaceful invasion of Norman artisans, traders, manufactures followed quick on the conquest of William. They influenced every field of English life including social, Political and linguistic. They had rich culture unlike Anglo-Saxons.  Normans dominated the social, political and religious fields for more than two centuries.  Most important result of Norman conquest is the change they wrought in the English language.  The tongue of conquered Anglo-Saxons is considered as barbarous. So they are banished from the higher circles of society. The church used Latin language and government used French as the official language. English became the tongue of the illiterate people. But this neglect ion was in fact a blessing to the English language. English enriched by the words and ideas of French. Used by peasants and low men. Normans brought church to the rein. They Introduced greater discipline and refinement to the English church.

             In the early Middle Ages(Dark Age) the barbarian invaders formed new kingdoms. In the 7^th century North Africa, Middle East came under the central caliphate, an Islamic empire of Muhammad’s successors.  In west most of the kingdom incorporated with Christians. Christians Began to campaign Christianity

High middle ages began after AD.1000, the population of Europe witnessed rapid expansion as a result of technological and agricultural innovations. Climate change allowed crop yield to increase. Manoralism and feudalism were two social organizations of high Middle Age.

First crusade was revolt of catholic Europe started in 1096 to regain Holy lands from the Muslim conquests of levent ultimately resulted in the recapturing of the Jerusalem in 1099. Crusade under the rule of Richard in away helped to enrich English language. Helped the introduction of several English and eastern words.  The magna Carta or the Great charter was signed in the year 1215 by king John(1199-1216). It was his misrule led to signing of the charter. This great document has been regarded as the Foundation of English liberties. It paved the way for the evolution of Parliament in England.

The significant event that occurred in the fourteenth century England was the struggle of Hundred Years' War fought between England and France from 1338 to 1453. The war which five English reigns covered caused much destruction to the nation. Initially England made fortune, but towards the middle of 15^th century the French became victorious and England expelled from the France. But it helped them to turn attention towards sea and expansion of the continent. Final years of the war witnessed the transition of Europe from medieval to the Modern world.  The Black death of Europe was a terrible plague which visited Europe in 1348-49 and ravaged the entire country. It devastated the entire Europe itself. Irrespective of rich, poor, town and country all fell before pestilence. It carried off about one third of English population and resulted to many social changes and events including the Peasants' Revolt in 1381.

War of the Roses(1455-1485) happened in the Fifteenth century England. It was a series of struggles for the crown between Lancastians and Yorkists. Revolutionary changes took place in this period which facilitated for the beginning if the Modern Age. The geographical discoveries, the Renaissance, the Reformation, scientific inventions such as printing marked the end of middle Ages in England. The Tudor despotism marks the beginning of modern Age in England.

Language and Literature

No great English literary work was produced during the first part of Middle English period. Especially upto 12^th century. But situation improved in 13^th century. The first important work is Layamon’s Brut was completed in the by 1205. Ormullum

Geoffrey Chaucer(1340-1400) was the prominent poet of Middle age who contributed much to the shaping of the English Language. His Troylus and Cryseyde is the first great narrative poem in English. Chaucer is referred as the father of English poetry. Canterbury Tales is considered as the masterpiece of Chaucer with about 17,000 lines in which the 29 pilgrims including Chaucer were to tell stories on the way and back from the shrine of St. Thomas Becket at Canterbury. His works gave the panorama of medieval life and believes. He used heroic couplets and introduced iambic pentameter. His other works include The Parlement of Foules, The House of Fame and The Legende of Good Women. Influence of Chaucer on later writers was immense. The chief English Chaucerians were John Lydgate (1370- 1452) and Thomas Occleve (1368- 1450). The leading Scottish Chaucerians were King James 1 (1394- 1437), Robert Henryson (1430- 15060 and william Dunbar (1460- 1530).

William Langland (1330- 1400) and John Gower were the great contemporaries of Chaucer. In Piers the Plowman, Langland attacked the abuses of his period, the greed and hypocrisy of the clergy and the tyranny of the ruling class. The dissatisfaction behind the Peasant's Revolt is expressed in the poem. A new genre was developed in romance was developed which is secular kind. the Sir Gawain and the Green Knight of unknown authorship falls into this category.

The prominent prose writers of the late Middle Ages were John Wycliffe and Sir Thomas Malory. John Wycliffe was the one who made translation of the Bible first.  He is known as the morning star of Reformation first made the English.  Malory's chief work is Morte d' Arthur (Death of Arthur). He worked mainly from French sources and French ideas. Translations in English from French and Latin became very popular during the age of Chaucer. Translations of the Bible, The Travels of John Mandeville, The Romaunt of the Rose by Chaucer etc.  Inventions, discoveries, Renaissance, and Reformations revolutionized the Europian mind and brought about the end of middle ages and birth to Modern age.

Literary Criticism

Literary criticism is nearly old as literature itself. But the study of literature began as a serious pursuit is only after Renaissance. Medieval criticism followed the system of classifying literature under the heads of grammar, rhetoric, and logic. Medieval age developed a systematic poetic grammar. Term Grammar was used for the science of correct speaking, and a reading curriculum for poets. Medieval criticism also dealt with biblical criticism, mysticism and allegoric reading of works. Horace had clear influence on Middle Ages, not Longinus. Thus we see that poetry existed with and in grammar, rhetoric, logic and philosophy during middle ages.

Medieval theory was based on a divine plan in which the function of literature was to help an individual to become better Christian.

Medieval critic can be divided into broad following  periods such as:

1.      Late classical (1^st to 7^th century)    2. Carolingian(8^th -10^th)

3.      High medieval (11^tth – 18^th)            4. Scholastic(13-14^th)

5. Humanist (14-16^th)

Though they were called as middle age and dark period, there are so, me works which prepared the ground for renaissance thought.  So it would be far from truth to conclude that the middle ages where wholly uncritical. So for a student of literary criticism middle age is an era of great historical importance.

CONCLUSION

The period between fall of Rome in 5^th century and rich renaissance of 15^th century goes by the name Middle Age or Medieval Age in European history. The fall of roman empire caused setback in political, economic, and social life of Medieval life of England and there were no historical documents describing the period between decline of Roman empire and Norman conquest. Hence the Term ‘Dark Ages’ is used to refer the earliest part of middle ages to emphasis the cultural, political and economic setback that occurred in western  Europe.  

Roman Catholicism became religious faith in Western Europe.  Comparing to the early classical ages the medieval period didn’t produce much literary output. But some great literary figures like Dante Aligierhi, Chaucer who paved way to the birth of modern English lived in this period. And there are some works of other authors too which prepared the ground for Renaissance and modern thought.

Bibliography:

Abrams,Meyer Howard, and Geoffrey Harpham. A glossary of literary terms, New York               Cengage Learning, 2011.

Albert, Edward. History of English Literature, New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1979

 Abraham K.M, Social and Cultural History of Great Britain, Kozha: Institute of Secularism ,    2011

Nagarajan, M.S. English Literary Criticism and Theory: An Introductory History, Hyderabad:       Orient B Albert, Edward. History of English Literature,           New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1979lack Swan,          2009

SAAD MOHAMMED, A2, DARK AGES AND THE MIDDLE AGES.

Dark Ages

A General Introduction

The Dark Ages is a term that is used interchangeably with the middle ages to refer to an era when Western Europe was supposedly going through a period of cultural and economic deterioration as a result of the collapse of the Roman Empire. The concept was originated in the fourteenth century when the Italian scholar Petrarch used it first to refer to the period of “intellectual darkness” that spread through the whole of Western Europe when Rome crumbled, and the term stuck. Earlier it was used to refer to the early middle ages (fifth – tenth century), but nowadays historians also refer to the later Middle Ages (eleventh – thirteenth) century as a period of Dark Age.

Petrarch’s view of the era as being one of cultural and economic decay is most probably biased. Being an Italian it was completely natural that he bemoaned the loss of Roman glory and might have wanted it to be restored. According to Petrarch, history was divided into two periods: the age of classical Greece and Rome followed by the age of darkness. Petrarch travelled throughout Europe in order to collect lost Greek and Latin texts and republish them in order to ensure the purity of the classical languages.

Modern historians and academics refrain from using the term dark ages refer to this era as the term is a misnomer. The modern conception that Western Europe was in a state of total moral, economic and cultural degradation is not entirely true and to a large extent is misguided. The era was characterized by relatively scarce historical and written records which make this period obscure to historians. Recent discoveries show that the era following the collapse of the Roman Empire was not devoid of any accomplishments in the field of literature particularly with figures such as Geoffrey Chaucer, Dante Alighieri, Giovanni Boccaccio, etc.

Early Middle Ages

The early middle ages refer to the period of European history lasting from the fifth to the tenth century. The period was characterized by a scarcity of cultural and literary output especially in North Western Europe. Another characteristic of this era was the decline in population and the subsequent decline in trade. Increased migration was also another characteristic as people began to leave their homeland in search of better prospects.

England emerged from the collapse of the Roman Empire with its economy in tatters and many towns abandoned. The era was followed by rapid waves of invasion and settlement by various Germanic tribes, which led to the formation of new culture and identities that were in constant warfare in pursuit for kingdoms. Under the Anglo – Saxons, a rich artistic culture was established with epic poems such as Beowulf, being written. Wessex was the most powerful and there was a growing sense of an English identity.

Beowulf

Beowulf the Anglo Saxon epic was composed sometime between the year 700 and the year 900. It tells the story of Beowulf, a warrior price from Geatland in Sweden who goes to Denmark and kills the monster Grendel that has been attacking the court of Hrothgar, the Danish king. As revenge Grendel’s mother, a water monster, takes revenge by carrying off one of the king’s noblemen, but Beowulf dives to her lair underwater and kills her too. On his return he is proclaimed as the king of Geats. The poem then moves forward to fifty years, Beowulf’s kingdom is being ravaged by a dragon. With the aid of Wiglaf, a young warrior, he manages to kill the dragon but is fatally wounded. He pronounces Wiglaf as his successor, and on returning home is buried. The poem ends with a premonition that the kingdom will be overthrown.

As in most cases a good deal of information can be known from the summary of a literary text. The plot of Beowulf literally revolves around three fights. Each fight involves a battle between the royal court and a monster. The monsters are dangerous, uncontrollable and unpredictable forces that threaten the security and well-being of the upper class and well to do. The threat the monsters pose is a threat to those in power and the life that they represent. This is a recurrent theme throughout ages. We get to see in Beowulf the indication of a well structured and organized society where religion play a big role in the day to day life of the people. The royal court is a place of refuge during difficult time but is also a place of celebration and feasting. There may be external threats such as monsters or foreign enemy or an enemy within the state that threaten the established order of a well structured society. The recurrent theme we see is that of a desire for order and organized life in a world of disorder, confusion and chaos.

Late Middle Ages

The late middle ages or the late medieval period is the period that precedes the Renaissance in Western Europe and generally comprises the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries The era was characterized by a number of famines, plagues and wars such as the Great Famine from 1315-1317, the Black Death and wars such as the Hundred Years War and the Crusades. The Black Death reduced the whole population of Europe to almost half of what it was before. To make matters worse nations such as England were experiencing protests from the peasant community and were also involved in constant warfare with France.

Despite all these crises, the fourteenth century was also a period of rapid progress in the fields of arts, literature and sciences. An interest was renewed in the ancient classical texts of Greece and Rome which acted as a precursor to the Italian Renaissance. It was further made easier when a number of Greek scholars fled to Italy on the capture of Constantinople by the Ottoman Turks in 1453.

The invention of printing was another major highlight of this era. It led to a larger circulation of scholarly texts than ever before which made it available to the large masses. These things would later lead to an event that forever changed the history of Europe, perhaps the world as well. Under the influence of the teachings of John Calvin, Martin Luther and other reformers of the Catholic Church a new branch of Christianity was formed which came to be known as the Protestant Church and the followers came to be known as Protestants.

The invasion of Constantinople and the subsequent collapse of the Byzantine Empire forced European sailors and navigators to look for alternative trade routes to the East. Christopher Columbus discovered a new continent when he set out in search of India. Vasco da Gama travelled through both India and Africa. Their discoveries once again strengthened the power and glory of the European nations.

Developments were made not only in the fields of science and navigation but also in the field of literature. The late middle ages saw the emergence of writers such as Dante Alighieri, Giovanni Boccaccio, Petrarch and the English poet, Geoffrey Chaucer.

Dante

Dante degli Alighieri (1265-1321) or simply Dante was an Italian poet that belonged to the late middle ages. His Divine Comedy which was composed in Italian is now considered as the all time greatest literary work in Italian and is as a masterpiece of world literature. During Dante’s lifetime the vast majority of poetry was only written in Latin which made it accessible to only the elite. Therefore, Dante’s decision to write the Divine Comedy in vernacular Italian was highly unorthodox which would later set out a standard for later Italian writers such as Boccaccio and Petrarch to write in the vernacular tongue. From all these observations we could actually say that Dante had played a significant role in the development of Italian language. A similar case can be seen in that of Geoffrey Chaucer, the English poet, who preferred to write his masterpiece, The Canterbury Tales in vernacular English rather than Latin or French which incidentally were the languages used in the royal court in those days.

The Divine Comedy is not a comedy but was rather called one because it was not written in Latin and was therefore deemed as inferior to the level of a comedy. But it is rather a grim account of the poet’s journey to hell, purgatory and the return back to life. The description of the sufferings and pain is realistic to the core. It has influenced the works of countless European writers such as Chaucer, Shakespeare, Tennyson and Milton.

Geoffrey Chaucer 

Geoffrey Chaucer (1343-1400), known as the Father of English literature, is considered as the greatest English poet of the middle ages and was the first poet to be buried in Poet’s Corner, Westminster Abbey.

Besides having established himself as an author, philosopher, and alchemist and as an astronomer, Chaucer was also active in the civil service and was employed as a bureaucrat, courtier and as a diplomat. This might have given him an extensive knowledge on courtly life and proceedings. Chaucer is largely responsible for developing the English vernacular language at a time when the dominant languages of England were French and Latin. This rises him to the status of figures such as Dante, who also gave importance to the vernacular rather than the language of the elite and the ecclesial class such as Latin.

Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales, narrates the tale of a group of pilgrims who set out for a journey to the shrine of the martyr, Saint Thomas Beckett. To pass the time they decide to narrate stories on the go. While Chaucer actually planned to write about a hundred and twenty stories, which makes it four stories for one pilgrim, only twenty-four stories were written, only one-fifth of the actual target. But the detailed description of the stories and the subsequent unraveling of the character’s personalities make up for this failure. We come across different men and women of various stations while the poem unravels and we cannot help but be fascinated by their various idiosyncrasies. We come across men from the trading class, the clergy, farmers, knights, squires, and women such as the Prioress and Wife of Bath. Regardless of their class and position, they were united by their common goal of reaching the shrine of Saint Beckett, the martyr.

Chaucer was extremely bold in his decision to write in vernacular English at a time when the languages of the court and clergy were French and Latin respectively. Chaucer was certainly influenced by French, Latin and Italian works but in The Canterbury Tales, Chaucer uses his creativity to forge a distinct and independent English identity at a time when England was ruled by the Anglo Saxons.

Conclusion

Dark Ages is a term that was first used by the Italian scholar and poet Petrarch to describe the fall of Roman Empire, and the so called decline of morality, economy and culture. But the term cannot be entirely justified. Surely there were consequences but it was not permanent and far-reaching. The fall of Roman Empire actually paved way for nations such as Britain to assert their selves and form their own distinct cultural identity, one apart from the continental one, which remains to this day. In comparison to the output of literature and philosophy in the classical age of Greece and Rome, the output was considerably less in the so called dark ages, at least in the earlier days, but those produced deserve to be raised on a pedestal for their effort.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medieval_Literature

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dark_Ages_(historiography)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoffrey_Chaucer

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dante_Alighieri

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages

Peck, John and Martin Coyle. A Brief History of English Literature. Kundli: Palgrave, 2012. Print.