DARK
AGES AND MIDDLE AGES
The
English Literature found in the Old and Middle English ages (600-1485). They
are mainly in fragmented form. Old English associated with 5th
century Britain. 5th to 11th century called as Old
English period. 12th to 15th century called as Middle
English period ‘Caedmon’s Hymn’ is the oldest literary text. It considers as a
first English Poem in English. The dream of the Rood’ is consider as the first
literary texts in old English. ‘Beowulf’ is the popular text in old English
period. ‘Brut’ consider as the first National Epic in English. All English
poetry is in the same verse form. Rhyme is not used to link lines one to
another. Middle English verses stress the rhyming verse. The English literature
produced during 1066 and 1200. Old English language is very difficult to
understand because it is different from that of to-day. There were four main
Dialects: Northumbrain, Mercian, Kentish and West Saxon. The Middle English
texts written down at the end of the old English time are in the West Saxon
dialect. Anglo-Saxon literature is of two kinds, before the introduction of the
Christianity and after the introduction of the Christianity. The first and most
famous Anglo-Saxon poem called ‘Beowulf’. ‘Widsith’ is another poem in this
period.
Over
the half century scholars challenged prior knowledge of the middle Ages as an
era of darkness, ignorance and superstition. Early middle ages from the fall of
Rome at the hands of Germanic tribes in the 5th century until around
1000. The advent of the Anglo-Saxon is
the greatest event in British History. A great deal of intellectual and
cultural progress in the 11th and 13th century which
called as later middle ages. Thought and culture was fact to development from
the medieval period. Traditions of Christianity, social and political patterns,
Germanic tribes contributed on middle ages. Christianity is the most powerful
force to develop medieval period. The language and institutions were originated
from Anglo-Saxon. They spoke a Germanic Language called ‘Anglese’ which later
changed into the present name of the language ‘English’. West Saxon became the
Dialect of Old English. Before the Norman Conquest Old English was the language
of Britain. From 450 A.D Old English in Britain and continued up to 1100 A.D.
The
word ‘dark ages’ synonymously used for the Middle ages. The dark ages also
known as the Christian dark, which occurred in Western Europe after the decline
of the Roman Empire. The word dark ages first used by an Italian scholar
Francesco Petrarch. He used this term because there is lack of cultural
achievement in his period. The middle
ages also called as dark ages because this period of time has been lost to
history. Many records of this period were vanished. There are no historical
records when we compared to earlier and later times. There was lack of Latin
literature during this period. This period also refers to the death of written
records. Later the dark ages called as ‘Early Middle ages’.
The word Middle age derived from Latin
‘medium’ and ‘aevum’. It believed that art, literature and science emerged
during the Middle age. Enormous changes in history, social and linguistic
change in this period. The English literature practiced orally and written
during this period. But the awareness of English literature does not exist
before 14th century. Book production was very expensive before the introduction
of the printing press by Caxton in 1476. The tradition of oral poetry brought
by Anglo- Saxon invaders. Because before the conversion of Christianity nothing
is written down. The 11th through the 13th centuries (which
known as High Middle age) we saw a renewal of interest in Neo- Platonism. Three
aspects of the medieval trivium-grammatica, rhetorica and dialectica.
Middle
ages divided into three. They are
Ø Early
Ø High
Ø Late
When did the English literature begin? There is no
perfect answer to this question. English medieval literature had no so far as
we know, no existence until Christian times of
the dark ages when the Latin was the language of English literature.
Jerome was one of the greatest Christian thinker who translated Bible from
original language into Latin. Christian doctrine not fully formalised in Early
Middle ages. The early middle ages were driven by two broader concepts: the
heritage of classical thought and the varying relation of developing Christian
theology to this heritage. Aelius Donatus wrote comentary on Terence, as well
as handbooks entitled Ars minor and Ars mair. Vergil was the one of the basic
text in school of grammar. Neo- Platonism was one of thru most prominent
streams of thought in early meddle ages. Late middle ages witnessed for various
forms of humanism and scholasticism.
Latin became the
literary language of England during the 12th century. Until the 14th
century Latin was in use at the court. English medieval literature was not
written. It passed by one to another. Since the Norman Conquest laws, documents
and books had been usually written in English. Amongst the upper classes and
law courts French had been spoken. French was the medium of speech. It is no wonder
that we find very little of English literature before Chaucer. This situation
changed in the later middle ages. The 14th and 15th
centuries witnessed the revival of the English language. Then the upper classes
started to use it. During the time of Edward –III, parliament passed a law
saying that the business matter was to be spoken in English and written down in
Latin. In 1385, certain school masters had begun to teach English grammar. Thus
the English became the mother tongue of the people.
At
this time there were many different forms or dialects of English. The English
of the east midlands was regarded as the proper form. This was the form used by
London, oxford and Cambridge. John Wycliffe first translated the Bible into
English. He used the East Midland in his translations of the Bible and added to
it many Latin words. William Caxton also used this in his several books.
As
the Norman French was used by the state, and Latin by the church, English was
spoken by the illiterate masses. There for no great literary works was produced
during the first part of the Middle English period, especially in the 12th
century. In the 13th century the first important work, Layamon’s
Brut (1205), was completed. He was a parish priest. His great poem of 30000
lines gives the whole history of the Britain. ‘Ormullum’ (1215) is another
Middle English Poem. It was written by a priest named Orm. Sir Gawayne is
regarded as the best Middle English romance, written sometime in the last
quarter of the 14th century. ‘Cursor mundi’ is the long religious
encyclopaedia. Then there are the three religious poems- ‘The Love Rune”, The
Pearl’ and the ‘Debate, between the Body and the Soul’. The English and French
people and their cultures produced important results in the metre as well as in
the vocabulary and literary content of new language. The time is ripe for a new
poet who appears in the person of Geoffrey Chaucer.
The
people of French and England produced important results in the metrics and
vocabulary of English language. English became capable of more subtle and
varied lyrical effects. The time was favourable for Geoffrey Chaucer to give a
new life to English language and literature. His literary taste was enriched by
his exposure to European cultures and literatures.
Many
poets influenced by the medieval literature. Geoffrey Chaucer was the great
during the 14th century. He is called as the ‘father of English
poetry’. He wrote much fine poetry. He used the newly revived English language
and made it a thing of beauty. His ‘troylus and Cryseyde’ is the first great
narrative poem in English language. Chaucer, Shakespeare, Dryden and other
poets used the love story of Troilus and Cressida. Chaucer borrowed the theme
from Boccaccio and used it in his own way. He is best known for his ‘Canterbury
tales’. He was greatly influenced by French and Italian. He established the
English language as a vehicle for literature. He introduced the iambic penta
meter. So we can say that the modern English poetry begins with Chaucer. In the
period of renaissance Chaucer referred as the ‘English Homer’. Spencer called
him “well of English undefiled”. John Gower and William Langland were the
Chaucer’s friends. John Gower popularised the theme of ‘country love’. William
Langland is known for his celebrated poem the vision concerning piers, the plowman.
The other poets and authors of the medieval
literature:
Ø Margery
Kempe – he is famous as the author of the first autobiography in English.
Ø Dante
– poet and politician.
Ø Boccaccio
– Italian Writer. Well known for his work ‘Decameron’.
Ø John
Wycliffe – first person to translate the Bible into English.
Ø Martin
Luther – He wrote protesting against the church practice of indulgencies known
as the 95 theses.
Prose Writings
The
important prose writers of the period are Reginald Peacock and Sir Thomas Malony.
Peacock’s repressor of over much Blaming of the clergy and Boke of faith are
considered landmarks in the history of English prose. It has been a well spring
of imagination to many poets like Arnold, Morris and Tennyson.
Drama
Medieval English drama had
practically very little to do with the classical theatres of Greece and Rome. The
English mystery plays dramatised the biblical narratives of creation. Even
though Old Testament episodes were include the plays concentrated chiefly on
the life and passion of Christ. The morality plays were allegorical dramas
depicting the progress of a single character, representing the whole of
mankind. God and Devils were included among the dramatise personal. The vices,
virtues, death, penance and Mercy were interesting characters of the Morality
plays. Every man is considered the most impressive piece among the morality
plays.
Anglo-Saxon
Literature
Ø Bede
and Caedmon’s Hymn
Ø The
Dream Of The Rood
Ø Beowulf
Ø Judith
Ø King
Alfred
Ø The
Wanderer
Ø The
Wife’s Lament.
Middle
English Literature in 14th nd 15th century.
Ø Geoffrey
Chaucer: Canterbury Tales, The general Prologue, The Wife of Bath.
Ø John
Gower: The Lover’s Confession, The tale of Philomina and Tereus.
Ø Williom
Langland: The Vision of Piers Plowman.
Ø Robert
Henryson
Ø William
Dunbar.
Middle
English Lyrics
v The
Cuckoo song
v Alison
v My
life is Faren in Londe
v Western
wind
v I
am of Ireland.
In
the end of the middle ages renaissance was take place. Renaissance means
rebirth. The word is usually used with reference to the revival of learning of
classical literature between the 14th and 16th century.
During this period there developed a spirit of inquiry, a spirit of freedom of
thought and action. The accession of Henry VII in 1485, beginning of the Tudor
dynasty and end of the Middle Ages.
Bibliography
Nayar, Pramod. K .A short history of English literature. New Delhi: Cambridge, 2009.
Albert, Edward. History
of English literature. New Delhi, 2012.
Peck, John and Coyle, Martin. A Brief History of English Literature. New York, 2004.
Habib, M.A.R,
Modern Literary Criticism and Theory. 2005
The
Norton Anthology of English Literature (Eighth Edition). New
York.
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