ASSIGNMENT ON
DARK
AGES AND MIDDLE AGES
Submitted
to:
Assistant
Prof; Shalini Submitted
by:
Department
of English and Mithya.A
Comparative
Literature Department
of English
Central
University of Kerala and Comparative
Literature
INDEX
INTRODUCTION
DARK AGES/ EARLY MIDDLE AGES
LATER MIDDLE AGES
CONCLUSION
BIBLIOGRAPHY
INTRODUCTION
The
word ‘Dark’ has a pessimistic implication. The word used in derogatory sense
too, for example Africa is called as Dark Continent. So semantically ‘dark’ got
negative tone may be this is the one reason to call the period between
Classical Age and Renaissance as “Dark Age.” The lack of mobility in every
field of this period proves that Petrarch is absolutely right in giving the
name ‘dark age’ to the period 400-1000 AD. Social, political and economic
troubles were the characteristics of that period. Because of this, artistic
works also declined in the period. The historical background for Dark Age can
be termed as simply ‘fall of Roman Empire’. Rome was the nucleus of all social
and cultural activities before Dark Age, the sudden fall of the empire made mishmash
at the time. But the writers did not notice the instability occurred that
period, they accused this period as dark. It is true that, written evidences on
Dark Age is not available, because of that the period lacks accuracy regarding
any subject.
The period
after Dark Age is Renaissance, this movement created many masterpieces and
genius. There is light before and after Dark Age, the light means cultural and
social developments. The lack of evidence may be the reason for accusing the
period, there might be literary sources existed through oral tradition in Dark
Age too. The information about Dark and middle ages creates confusion, because
each source gives different opinions. The one opinion prevailed during Dark Age
is, Christianity was strengthened during this period, the Catholics never
considered the period of darkness; instead they called it as period of harmony.
So a reliable source for collecting information is difficult to find. Here, tried to generalize the ideas about
Dark and middle Ages.
THE DARK AGE OR EARLY MIDDLE AGES
Dark
Age is the negative term used for the period between fall of Roman Empire and
the Renaissance. Dark Age is also known as middle age, in Latin it is called as
medieval period. The name Dark Age is given, because the social, political and
economic condition of that period was miserable. Simultaneously this condition
effected to the literature of that period.
Social as well as literary condition of that period was low. Until the
fourteenth century the word ‘literature’ is not existed in English, but there
is literary works. That is, the categorization of literary works as poetry,
drama etc not existed at that period. The classical writers are known to the Dark
Age society, but unfortunately their works did not influence them. The major
two reasons for low condition of the literature are Christianity and Feudalism.
The influence of religion in the society created a highly dogmatic and orthodox
society. Such a society gave more importance to theological works. The literary
works of that period largely based on religion.
Dark Ages started, when
the last Western Roman Emperor Romulus Augustus was defeated in 476 AD by a
group of barbarians. After the fall of Roman Empire, society faced many
adversities. Uncivilized customs and practices existed that time. Barbarians,
Vikings and various feudal nobles made
miserable situations for common people, they lived like serfs. The life during
serfdom was difficult for peasants and lower class people. 400 AD to 1000 AD is
considered as dark ages. But the period is also classified as early middle Ages
and Later Middle Ages. The Early Middle Ages is the exact Dark Ages. There is
no written record are available for Dark Ages, so very little information is
available for the period. The information mainly passed through oral tradition.
The Italian historian Petrarch first used the term Dark Age, Petrarch is
generally connected to the Italian Renaissance. May be Petrarch intended to
denounce Latin literary legacy.
In early middle ages
commerce and industry declined and land becomes increasingly concentrated in
the hands of a few. Famine and disease also increased the sufferings of common
people. The ancient Roman culture gave path to life concentrated on villages,
feudal estates and monasteries. Literature of this period increasingly
formulated with religious and feudal contexts. The spread of Christianity
initiated monasticism. Monasticism advocated practice of poverty, obedience,
humility, labour and devotion. It was because of this, the most books of that
period written by monks who suffered a lot. The Christianity preached earthly
life as worthless; it was the medium to the next life, and to acquire eternal
salvation or the bliss. The major thinker of this period was the Neo-Platonist
Boethius ( ca 480-524) whose translations of Aristotle’s logical treatise
proved of paramount importance of thinking. The most anti-feminist writing in
the middle ages came from the clerical establishment.
The approach towards
classical literature is somewhat different in Christianity. There are two
perceptive on classical literature, one is sought distance Christianity from
paganism, and the second continue the Christian appropriation of classical
rhetoric and philosophy. The main thinkers of former stream are Tertullian (ca
160-225) and Pope Gregory the Great (540-604) laid stress on the authority of
faith and protest against reason. Both of them renounced all secular knowledge
and viewed literature as a foolish pursuit. Poetry and history gained some
acceptance during that period. But Christianity opposed drama as well as visual
arts, which was associated with idolatry.
ST.AUGUSTINE
St.
Augustine was a major literary critic of that period. He influenced the
traditions of both Roman Catholic and protestant thoughts. He developed his
theology in City of God (412-427)
where he viewed human history as revealing of a divine plan. He accepts
philosophy as gainful in pursuit of wisdom. The task of philosophy is to add
reason to faith that has already accepted, in order to create a clearer
understanding of faith. Augustine says
original sins are the reason for man’s departure from God. But what is the
original sin then? According to Augustine cause of original sin was pride,
which creates self-love and desire for self-sufficiency in man. So men regard
himself as his own light and the reason for everything. Augustine calls Christ
as ‘mediator between God and men.’
Augustine was influenced
by Plato, whom he regarded as the greatest of philosopher. He condemns liberal
arts, for him scriptures are really liberating. But he opposes Plato for
banishing poets from the commonwealth. He says on moral ground one cannot
accuse a poet because, an artist cannot sincere to his/her artistic intend
unless he/she enacts falsehood. Augustine opposed stage plays, he calls it as
“spectacle of uncleanness” whose speeches were “smoke and wind” (156, M.A.R
Habib).
One
of the problems of medieval aesthetics was combining of earthly beauty with
spiritual pre-occupations. This show, element of spirituality is predominant in
literature and other fields. For Augustine and other medieval philosophers such
as Albertus Magnus and Bonaventura, beauty is not associated with physical
objects only; but it is harmony between certain terms like material,
intellectual or spiritual. The dark ages lacks written documents, so the
information regarding other critics or literary figures are not available.
There is a clash between the actual chronology of dark ages, so the critics and
writers discussed in dark ages may also appear in the later middle ages too.
But the major reason for calling the period as Dark Age is ‘literary
stagnation’ of the period. Religion is the major hindrance to the literature
and another reason is over domination of Latin literature too.
For
the literature of the early middle ages, Beowulf
is the first and perfect narrative poem, which describes story of a hero. Beowulf was an epic poem, whose
manuscripts dates from about the 10th century. The author of the
book is unknown, but he seems to have a good knowledge in Bible and other great
epics like Homer’s Odyssey. As with
other writings, this epic incorporates both pagan and Christian ideas. The poem is important source of historical
knowledge.
Caedmon
was a 7th century religious poet; he wrote works based on Old
Testament. His works are largely influenced by Bible. His other two works are Daniel and Exodus, but some of the critics contribute this works to anonymous
writer. Exodus deals with the
Israelite escape from Egypt and miraculous crossing of the Red Sea. Daniel includes the fall of Jerusalem,
the two dreams of Nebuchadnezzar and Daniel’s interpretation of that dreams,
and the miraculous survival of Daniel’s three friends. Hymn of Creation also contributed to Caedmon.
Cynewulf
and his followers practiced New Testament, as well as historical events
connected with Christianity. His works include The Fates of the Apostles, a short mythology, The Ascension (or Christ II) a homily and biblical narrative, and Juliana, the story of a saint. The most
famous work is Elene (Helene), which describes Constantine’s
victory under the sin of cross and his conversion and his mother’s legendary
discovery over original cross in Jerusalem. Cynewulf’s themes include both
Christian and pagan; he compares two of this with opposite natural elements.
King
Alfred the Great was important ruler of the first millennium. He ruled in the
period 871-900. He made negotiations with Vikings and later made his kingdom
into a cultural centre. He translated many works from Latin, especially in the
field of religion, history and philosophy. The first translated work was The Pastor’s Book, containing ideals for
a pastor, in that a secular ruler described, which Alfred himself was. He also
translated Bede’s Church History and other historical works. His
works lacked originality and were more instructive and educational than
artistic and beautiful.
LATER MIDDLE AGES
The
‘later middle ages’ differs from ‘early middle ages’ or “dark age” because, the
rigidity of religion and feudalism started to decline slowly. But the changes
are not rapid; the clutches of Dark Age persisted at a small period of time,
particularly in the beginning of later Middle Ages. There is no correct cutting
line between early and later middle ages. The differentiation made on the basis
of progress. The later middle ages regained economic progress, lost in the dark
ages. It was at this point of time system of feudalism achieved stable
formation. The basic unit of production in the feudal period was the manor or
manorial estate.
In
feudalism urban area developed much. There were cities and urban communities.
The major European cities included Palermo, Venice, Florence, Milan, Ghent,
Bruges and Paris. Economically, the cities were dominated by two types of
organizations, merchant guilds and artisan guilds, whose purpose was to
maintain monopoly over local trade for their own members. The other reasons for
undermining feudalism ; the growing internalization of trade, the development
of cities and the increased opportunity of urban employment; which tempted
peasants to migrate over towns, the Crusades began in 1096 which encouraged the
peasants to break their bonds to the soil of absentee landlords. The hundred
years war (1337-1453) which consolidated monarchy in France, the plague known
as the Black Death, after 1517, the rise of various sects of Protestantism,
sanctioning of worldly activity etc.
The
influences of thinkers like Augustine visible in the later middle ages too. The
concept of human will and divine grace put forward by Augustine, got approval
in this period also. One of the most prominent streams of thought of the early
Middle Ages, Neo-Platonism witnessed revival during twelfth century. Later
middle ages seen development of new intellectual movements like Humanism,
Scholasticism etc. these are developed out of the medieval institutions of
learning, namely the cathedral schools and universities.
In heroic literature kingship and military
capabilities are intimately connected. The ancient universities are meant for
teaching grammar and rhetoric. But in middle ages the change occurred in the
university system, the present day university is much indebted to the medieval
universities. The later middle ages gave path to Renaissance and there after
modernism. The literary works are largely available during later middle ages
comparing to the Dark Age. But literary criticism less in later part of Middle
Ages that is because secular works are began to flourish. Later part of middle
ages also connects with renaissance period, so the renaissance writers also
attributed to later middle ages. In
renaissance Humanism was encouraged, that is the study of grammar, rhetoric,
history, poetry and moral philosophy. Renaissance humanism assumed the dignity
and central position of human beings in the universe. It emphasized importance of education of
studying classical, imaginative and philosophical literature.
William
Langland was one of the popular authors of Middle English period. His life span
is around 1330-1400. His famous work was The
Visions of Piers Plowman. Langland belongs to the poor
family, so his work Piers Plowman describes about the life for
poor Englishmen in 14th century. The poem criticizes negative sides
of noble and church during the period. The poem was written in vernacular
language. Langland had knowledge about medieval theology.
Geoffrey
Chaucer known as the father of English poetry, he is the first known great poet
of the period. His best known work is The
Canterbury Tales. His other major works include Troilus and Criseyde, The Nun’s Priest’s Tale etc.
His literary career divided into three; French, Italian and English. He was not
considered as critic.
CONCLUSION
The
socio-political condition of the Dark Age and middle ages made the age
different from other period. Artistic and creative works are less during the
period. Christianity influenced the writings of the age. So the literary works
of Dark Age retold the biblical stories. Creativity is criticized and ridiculed
by the people. Such mentality of the people made the age dark. Dark Age lacks
written sources, so it is not sure that literature remained primitive at the
time. Because of the church authority, writers are afraid to write creative
works, or their creative writings may be struggled to sustain during the
period. But the present history says that there is no development in the field
of literature. We know that history is partial, so the second side of Dark Age
is unseen by the because of lack of proof. This is simply my point of view.
But
generally speaking in the graph of development Dark Age is going downwards and
all other periods are upwards. We have discussed the reasons behind the downward
condition. Feudalism and religion are the central theme of the period, they are
the dominant power. Those literary works survived this period were mainly
religious texts; there is nothing creative in that. As a whole we can conclude
that, because of lack of accurate history on Dark Age people interpret Dark Age
according to their reasons and point of views. But most of the historians find
backwardness in all fields in Dark Age.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Ø Abrams,
M. H. A Glossary of Literary Terms.
Wadsworth: Cengage, 2012. Print
Ø Gastle,
Brain. Historical Contexts for Middle
English Literature. Western Carolina University, Web.
Ø Habib,
M. A.R, Modern Literary Criticism and
Theory, A History. USA: Blackwell, 2005. Web.
Ø Poplovski,
Paul. English Literature in Context. Delhi:
Cambridge University Press, 2008. Print.
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