ENLIGHTENMENT

                                    

                                       " I think, therefore I am"

                                                                     -  Descartes

                                           Enlightenment (lasting roughly from the fifth century to the fifteen.) was a philosophical, intellectual and cultural Movement of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. The main focuses of the enlightenment movement were reason, logic, criticism and freedom of thought ect. Logic was a not a new invention of the era. The idea of logic has its roots in ancient Greeks. Classical greek philosophers like Plato and Aristotle argued reason as a faculty through which we could gain access to truth such as universal and the certain. What was  novel to enlightenment movement was its insistence on reason  as a primary faculty.  Basically enlightenment movement argued that the state of human life could be improved through reason and knowledge. They also find the history of mankind as a progressive one, which could be coloured by the use of reason and proper education. As a movement enlightenment challenged religion to a certain extent,  with a scientific method. there is no definitive starting or ending point for enlightenment movement.  The scientific revolution and the enlightenment opened a new way for independent thinking and paved way for different fields of studies such as mathematics, astronomy, physics, politics and medicine. One problem in defining the enlightenment movement is there was a great deal of divergence in the leading thinker‘s point of views.

  The main focuses of enlightenment movement continue to have a profound influence in our modern times too. When we analyse the background of enlighten movement, the most apparent cause of enlightenment was the thirty years’ war. The war was a horribly destructive one and it lasted from 1618 to 1648.  Some men of letters such as Hugo Grotius and John Comenius were some first enlightenment voices to argue against the war and dreamt a better world.

            The first major   figure in   England as far as enlightenment is concerned is Thomas Hobbes. He caused controversy with his treaties Leviathan (1951). Hobbes argued for the need of a single intimidating ruler. A half century  later , John Lock came up with an entirely different and somewhat opposing  idea  of  representative government in his famous treaties Two Treaties  of Government . Enlightenment movement was preceded by neo-classicism.  Neo classicism refers to the period between 1600 and 1785 .  Some historians do read the period neoclassicism along with the age of reason i.e., Restoration period.The half century of the period is known as the “Age of Johnson”, stresses the dominant position of Samuel Johnson and his literary and intellectual circle, which included Oliver Goldsmith, Edmund Burke, James Boswell, Edward Gibbon, and Hester Lynch Thrale. These authors on the whole represented a culmination of the literary and critical modes of neoclassicism and the world view of enlightenment.   Samuel Johnson is known for his two volume  Dictionary of the English Language published in 1755 and Lives of the English Poets (1783).his contributions to English criticism were immense. Johnson defends Shakespeare in so many accounts. He praises Shakespeare for his powerful and life like characterisation. Shakespeare’s character’s represents general manners or nature rather than particular. As a neoclassicist Johnson made frequent comparison between past and present works. He concluded that past works are better than the present. 

.                          The famous enlightenment thinkers are Francis Bacon, John Locke, William Godwin, Descartes, Voltaire, Immanuel Kant, David Hume, Edmund Burke and Mary Wollstonecraft etc. The enlightenment movement was characterised by the unusual importance given to the idea of reason as the driving force of man’s wisdom. As John Locke says “ No man’s knowledge here can go beyond  his experience .”

                                      Samuel Johnson is remembered for his two- volume Dictionary of the English Language published in 1755 and Lives of the English Poets (1783).  An integral dimension of Johnson’s literary output and personality was his literary criticism, which was to have a huge impact on English letters.  In his Preface to Shakespeare he criticizes Shakespeare for his violation of three unities put forward by Aristotle. Shakespeare’s character’s represents general manners or nature rather than particular. As a neoclassicist Johnson made frequent comparison between past and present works. He concluded that past works are better than the present.

           Johnson’s classical commitment to reason, probability, and truth was complimented by his equally classical insistence on the moral function of literature.   Through his criticism he tries to prove that he is flexible in his adherence to classical formulations. Johnson stresses on “truth”.  According to him truth is superior to rule.  Johnson’s criticism rested on the classical foundation of adherence to nature, reason and truth. Through the term “nature” he not only means the external world and physical nature but the human nature in its universal and historical embodiment of reason and moral sensibility.

         John Dryden is an another important figure in Neo classical age. He is commonly known as the father of English Criticism. Dryden perfected heroic couplet. According to him feelings are more important rather than vision. His major work is An Essay on Dramatic Poecy.

Francis Bacon  :  Francis Bacon, famous English philosopher, propagated the method of introduction through his works. His major works include The Advancement of Learning and The Organonare.  . He advocated that the method of induction is a more authentic method than the method of deduction which was followed during the medieval age. This is a more scientific method because we apply reason to the observed facts than merely form random conclusions.

Rene Descartes ; He was a great philosopher and French rationalist. Descartes questioned the constructed ideals of the medieval philosophy. He wants to apply scientific modes of study in philosophy. In his work Discourse on Method, he comes up with appreciating the discipline of mathematics and mathematical certainty, and a need to apply the same to philosophy and other disciplines. Descartes is known for his very famous quote- Je pense, donc Je suis. It is a French phrase which means I think, therefore I am.  He had a very practical and mechanical worldview. He tries to make a distinction between mind and body and identified his self in his thinking process.

 Baruch Spinoza ; He was a well known Duch philosopher. Baruch Spinoza studied the works of Descartes very deeply. Unlike others he had a rationalistic and unorthodox approach. This outlook and way of thinking led to serious expulsion from his community. He was charged of Heresy. The Christian theologians got upset with his unorthodox stands regarding Bible.

  They are the three famous figures initiated the idea of enlightenment. The two main factors as far as enlightenment philosophy is concerned are empiricism and rationalism. Descartes mainly talked about the need of reason in our thinking process.

    Thomas Hobbes introduced the idea of Materialism and put forth so many theories on that idea. He is best known for his theories on political philosophy. He argued that a materialistic view of world and even mind is very necessary. Hobbes’ most notable work is Leviathan. He tried to ponder the human nature. For him a single absolute ruler is much better than an oligarchy or democracy. A group of individuals who are in power will always try to acquire more power. This quest for power leads them to establish new power structures.  He also asserts that it is the ruler’s responsibility to assure that his citizens are well protected.

   John Lock is an unforgettable name when we take up enlightenment philosophy for discussion. He is regarded as one of the most influential figures of enlightenment movement.  Some consider him as the Father of Classical Liberalism. Thinkers like Voltaire, Rousseau ect were greatly influenced by John Lock. This can be best seen in United States Declaration of Independence.  His famous works are An Esaay on Human Understanding and Two Treatises on Civil Government. Lock was against the view of Descartes that ideas are born in our minds. He says that our mind is a blank slate in which our experiences are recorded. This recording happens through sensation and reflection. He then argued that there is no single universal idea or there is no innate idea as such. Everything that is printed in our mind definitely comes from the experience of the physical world. He makes this point by saying that if there is any universal unity for ideas we will have a common inner world.

  

            Later the notion of empiricism was further developed by David Hume. David Hume was a Scottish philosopher and he is called British Empiricist due to his empiricist approach to philosophy. His famous contribution is A Treatise on Human Nature (1739).This book was not received well during his time. But it is considered to be a classic text now. Hume was both a rationalist and an empiricist. According to him proof was required to establish a truth. Like Hume , Lock also argues  that mind is nothing but a blank entity.  Experiences make us capable of strengthening our ideas with the help of reasoning.

   Giambattista Vico, Italian political philosopher and historian, is a remarkable figure in Enlightenment movement. Vico advocates classical antiquity and was against the progress of modern rationalism. His best known work is ScienzaNuova. Vico was cast as a counter-Enlightenment thinker. He puts forth the notions of rhetoric and humanism. His idea of rationalism can be easily understood by contrasting with the Cartesian rationalism, especially the importance given by Descartes on the geometric method. We cannot say to what extent Vico disagreed with the ideals of enlightenment philosophy. he himself was part of similar philosophical researches. He points out the influence of Bacon on him when he calls his work as a science. He was also influenced by Malebranche. So, it is very difficult to find out to what extent he supported and condemned the focal ideas of enlightenment philosophy. The main contradiction between Vico and Descartes was that both gave space for imagination and rhetoric. Descartes states his strong discontent with rhetoric and approaching culture as a source of certainty. These points can be very well seen in the opening of his Discourse on Method. According to him one need not depend on rhetoric to defend his idea if it is clear enough. on the other side of the coin Vico tries to advocates the idea of rhetoric through his works.

                          France was the soil in which enlightenment philosophy flourishes. Jean Jacques Rousseau  Was a major writer and philosopher who introduced the concept of political philosophy.  He was against all kinds of authority and institutions that stand against individual freedom.

 Voltaire, Denis Diderot and Jean d’Alembert were the major enlightenment thinkers in France. Voltaire had popularised the theories of Newton and Locke among the public. His important works are Philosophical Dictionary and Candide. In Candide, he makes fun of the optimism, determinism and rationalism of the German philosopher Gottfried Leibniz. He stood for liberty and freedom of speech. Diderot and d’Akembert were the other leading members of the French enlightenment. thority and institutions that stand against individual freedom.