ENLIGHTENMENT
The
term Enlightenment is used to refer the intellectual movement and cultural
ambiance which prevailed in Western Europe during the seventeenth and
eighteenth centuries. It marks the shift from predictive notion of knowledge to
that of a deductive one. According to Immanuel Kant Enlightenment is ‘the
escape of men from their self-incurred tutelage’ and the reliance on their
reason. Hence the motto of Enlightenment is, ‘Sapere aude’ that is ‘have
courage to use your reason’. (Kant 1)
Before, knowledge was something which was associated with
god. For instance Plato considered poetry as a result of divine inspiration.
For Aristotle it is a conscious activity which is rule ridden. Men were
supposed to be the medium of divinity. It was only by Renaissance, that, art
came to be acknowledged as a creation. The mimetic notion of art lost its
importance and art began to be viewed as a product of human imagination.Enlightenment
thinkers viewed knowledge not as something which is inherently present in the
mind but as something which is experienced through the senses. The shift in the
perception of art also owes to the development in the field of Science.
The
period of Enlightenment is preceded by neo classicism, the characteristic of
which is the tendency to imitate the classics. The neo classicist writers
consider literary composition as a rule bound process which involves a great
deal of craft and labor. Unlike the Renaissance theorists and poets they tend
to compartmentalize the genres as separate entities. (They were against the
mixing of genres).They were more concerned with the finitude of human beings
rather than their potential. Though, they sticked to the imitation of the
classics, modifications to the ancient models were allowed. Writers like Ben
Johnson, Corneille and Dryden were flexible about their assimilation of the
classical values. That is why they acknowledged Shakespeare even when he had
flouted the classical conventions.
Even
though neo classicism appears to share the reliance on the faculty of reason like
during Enlightenment, many critics believe that reason had a different
perception during neo classicism and Enlightenment. The reason which appeals
the neoclassicist is not individualistic and progressive like that during
Enlightenment. They believed that human reason has its own limitations. It had
a tendency towards order, clarity and standardization. One of the
manifestations of this tendency includes the publication of Samuel Johnson’s Dictionary
in 1755.
Neo
classical literary criticism emerged in France and later spread to other parts
of Europe, especially England. Corneille, Racine, Moliere, and La Fontaine were
the major figures of French neoclassicism.
The
most important work of the French playwright Pierre Corneille is the Three
Discourses on Dramatic Poetry which was published in 1660 to defend his
dramatic practices to the strict classicists of his period. Since his aim was
to adapt ancient rules in a way which is convenient for the modern world he
redefined the Aristotelian concept of the three unities.
Nicolas
Boileau-Despreaux, the French poet satirist and critic had a great influence on
the French English and German poets. Boileau draws heavily from Aristotle and
Horace. It was John Dryden who translated one of his major works, The Art of
Poetry.Echoes of his ideas can be seen even in the writings of Alexander
Pope (Essay on Criticism). Boileau believes in the classical notion of
reason which held reason as a human faculty which perceives universal truths.
Thus he says, “Love reason then; and let whate’er you write / Borrow from her
its beauty, force, and light”. It is different from the individualistic reason
which relies on empiricism.According to him there should be unity between the
various parts of a poem. Like Philip Sydney, he too believes that poetry should
instruct as well as delight. Boileau associates imitation of classics, obeying
the unities of time and place, nature of the characters etcetera to reason.
That is for him every rule should be accompanied with reason.
The
English neo classicism draws its inspiration from the French school. In England
the prominent figures include John Dryden, Alexander Pope, Aphra Behn and
Samuel Johnson. Boileau’s
influence is profound in Pope.Some adhered to the strict practice of classical
conventions while some allowed for adaptations or modifications. The English
neo classicism was flexible enough to accommodate writers like Shakespeare. For
instance Thomas Reymer was strict in following the three unities and the
principles of probability and for that reason he indicted Shakespeare.However
there were many others who admired Shakespeare.Many of the neo classical
writers drew from the philosophical ideas of empiricism and associationism of
John Locke and Thomas Hobbes.
John Dryden holds a seminal place in English literary
history. He is often hailed as the father of English Criticism. Through his Essay
on Dramatic Poesy, Dryden attempts to strike a compromise between the
ancients and the moderns. The ancients saw ancient works as the archetypal
standards of literature while the moderns sought to adapt or even abandon the
classical ideals. He was against the Aristotelean notion of tragedy. Dryden
does not totally ignore the classical archetypes but he believes that the
modern writers should also be given a chance to create their own literary
tradition. Dryden places equal emphasis on a poet’s imagination and wit. Here
we see a transition from the classical notion of art as a form of imitation to
that of a creation. Dryden belongs to the transitional period between neo
classicism and romanticism.
Alexander
Pope is the renowned poet and author of Essay on Criticism. Pope heavily
draws from Aristotle, Horace, Quintilian and Horace. He believes that best
poetry and best criticism are the products of divine inspiration. He also
thinks that critics should also take into consideration the author’s intention
regarding a particular work. Pope has high opinion about the genre of tragic
comedy which is unfamiliar to the classics. Through his philosophical poem An
Essay on Man, he marks his dislike on the mankind for exalting rationality
and science over divine authority. He has a love towards the classics grounded
on rationality and tolerance.He calls for a return to the classical values. He
considers criticism also as an art. According to him the critics should possess
the aesthetic quality of taste, analyze a work with his reason, look into the
overall unity of a work without falling for prejudices and he should also
possess a moral sensibility.He advices both the poets and the critics to follow
nature. His idea of nature is similar to the medieval sense of nature in which
it represents the harmony, order and beauty of God’s creation.
Aphra
Behn is considered as the first known professional woman writer in English and
one of the founders of English novel. Her novel Oroonoko (1688) is
considered as the first novel to oppose slavery. According to Behn one cannot
expect drama to perform a moral function. She also dismisses the classical
rules of literary composition.
Samuel
Johnson is the most widely known figure among the Augustans. He believed in the
moral function of literature and one could easily observe this moral and
didactic bent in his works.Johnson gives emphasis on the need for a poet to
possess knowledge and direct experience. Like Plato and Aristotle he considers
reason as an avenue to truth. According to Johnson the greatest quality of a
work of art is to imitate nature. But this imitation advocated by him is highly
selective and constrained by morality.He believes in the expression of truth in
general or universal terms. Johnson thinks that rules should have its base in
reason rather than in precedents. For him a poet should faithfully imitate
human nature.
European
politics, philosophy, literature and science were reoriented during the course
of seventeenth and eighteenth centuries due to a phenomenon termed
Enlightenment. Some also refer it as the Age of Reason. It was an era marked by
humanitarian, intellectual and social progress. Unlike the early period which
gave importance to irrational prejudices and superstitions, thought began to be
based on the rationality and freedom of an individual. More than a human
faculty reason began to be seen as a way of life or a way of looking at the
world.
Much of the Enlightenment thoughts owe to the new
scientific vision of the universe inspired by the work of Isaac Newton. The
historical perception of nature as created and controlled by a benevolent
providence was dismantled by the scientific notion of a mechanical universe
which could be comprehended through scientific laws. Reason was given
importance even before the period of Enlightenment, but then people were taught
to use reason within certain constraints put forward by the religion or
society. During Enlightenment the difference was that reason began to be viewed
as the primary faculty to acquire knowledge through its limitless application.
English thinker Francis Bacon, the French rationalist philosopher Rene
Descartes and the Dutch rationalist thinker Benedict Spinoza had influenced the
Enlightenment ideals.
The seminal philosophical works of Bacon includes The
Advancement of Learning (1605) and The New Organon (1620).He
formulated inductive thinking in which we generalize something on the basis of
our observation of particular occurrences. Bacon preferred inductive learning
over deductive learning. For in deductive learning our thought process is
restricted to the premises laid by the authorities be it a political or
religious authority. According to him the only way to attain knowledge is
through true induction in which reason is applied to the observed facts. He
believes that humans should initiate a new start with inductive thinking for he
has internalized many false conceptions because of lack of understanding, one’s
own prejudices and those misleading notions nurtured by the authorities.
Rene Descartes is often hailed as the father of modern
philosophy. Like Bacon he challenged the basic principles of medieval
philosophy. He advocated a mechanistic view of the world. In his famous concept
of dualism he distinguishes between mind and body. He followed a skeptical mode
of thinking, doubting everything including his senses. Descarte emphasized on
the application of human reason to arrive at clear and distinct notions of the
world. Bacon and Descartes represent
empiricism and rationality respectively.
Another empiricist thinker and philosopher of
Enlightenment is John Locke. His major works include An Essay concerning
Human Understanding and Two Treatises on Civil Government. Locke
denies Descartes’s idea that our mind has innate ideas. According to him our
mind is initially blank and it is our experiences either through senses or reflection
which formulates our ideas.
David Hume was a Scottish philosopher who is famous for
his radical empiricism, skepticism and naturalism. According to Hume there are
no essences in the world, that is, all the external objects, human identity and
moral conceptions are the constructions of human mind.
The major figures of French Enlightenment include
Voltaire, Denis Diderot and Jean d’ Alembert. Voltaire’s works include the
Philosophical Dictionary, Candide etcetera.Through his works he advocated the
necessity of reason and experience and the concept that the world is governed
by natural laws. He thinks that there is need to experience the world directly
and the need to work so as to get rid of the three evils of boredom, vice and
poverty. He champions liberty and freedom of speech but not of the common man.
Some
of the Enlightenment philosophies had a great impact on French Revolution.
Locke’s Second Treatise of Self Government is one among them. It
justified the new political system which came into existence in England after
the 1688 revolution. Instead of a despotic monarchy and a parliament with
absolute sovereignty he advocated an enlightened monarchy or a republic
governed by bourgeois classes.
Jean-Jacques
Rousseau also had an impact on the French Revolution. Through his works Social
Contract and Discourse on the Origin of Inequality, he advocated his popular
theories on democracy, egalitarianism and the evils of private property. But he
is often hailed as the father of romanticism, for he preferred the state of
nature over civilization and emotions and instincts over reason and learning.
In
general, the major tendencies of enlightenment were rationalism, empiricism,
pragmatism and utilitarianism. All these thoughts were based on the assumption
that the world is composed of particular and distinct things and that we form
general ideas formed from the association and abstraction of particular things.
Enlightenment thinking also assumes the world as a machine subject to laws. It
also considers the human world as an aggregate of separate individuals with the
individual being autonomous and free rational agent.
The
intellectual movement associated with Enlightenment also influenced the field
of literature particularly on literary criticism. Enlightenment thoughts formed
the base for the discussions on the language of poetry, notions of taste and
human faculties like wit, judgment and imagination. The historical developments
of the period included the increasing power of the bourgeoisie, development of
constitutional forms of government, the increasing power of newer scientific
perspectives, and the expansion of a reading public and the development of
rationalism and empiricism as the main streams of Western thoughts.
Enlightenment
philosophy and literary criticism of the period has direct connections, through
the various philosophies on language.The most influential among such theories
belong to John Locke. Many scholars think that the scientific and observational
dimensions of Locke’s empiricism have influenced the writing of poetry through
a new trend called the doctrine of particularity which employed sensory details
and scientific descriptions. This was totally against the neo classical concept
about poetry which considered that it speaks universal language and expresses
general truths. Human mind was conceived as active as it constructs thoughts by
associating the ideas received. These thoughts influenced the eighteenth century
literature and criticism to represent mental experiences. This doctrine of
associationism can be found in thinkers like Locke, Hume, Hartley and Condillac
As
a philosopher John Locke laid the foundations of British empiricism. Essay Concerning Human Understanding
is considered as his seminal work. He thinks that language should be used in a
precise manner for the language we use is closely associated with our thought
process. For Locke wit lies in the assembling of ideas and putting them
together in quickness and variety so as to make pleasant pictures and agreeable
vision in fancy. While judgment carefully separates one idea from the other so
that, one is not taken for the other. According to Locke, the domain of poetry
is governed by wit and that of philosophy by judgment. He proposes a separation
of human pursuits and faculties rather than a combination of the two as
proposed by the Renaissance humanists. Locke is of the opinion that what we
know of this world is not real but only the ideas we have about the world.
Another major figure of enlightenment is
Joseph Addison. He is an essayist, poet and dramatist. Together with Richard
Steele he authored several articles in the Tatler and the Spectator.
He wrote essays on various topics ranging from codes of conduct, fashions in
dress and marriage conventions to philosophy and literature. His intension was
to mold and refine the critical tastes of its readership. These tastes were
sometimes influenced by the neoclassical scheme of values, Aristotelian
concepts and also by the concepts of Locke. Addison makes an attempt to define
taste and assumes it as a faculty of soul which to some extent is innate but
cultivable. He asks his readers to depend on the celebrated works of antiquity
to recognize and refine their taste. His stand is ambivalent regarding the literary
value of a work. His position is somewhere between the classical disposition
which give importance to the authority of the text and the modern notion which
gives more importance to the readership. Following Kant he situates imagination
between sense and understanding and considers it as something lower than understanding
and higher than sense. He also thinks that the pleasures o fancy and
imagination have a restorative influence on us. By this time we reach a
balanced position between the neo classical notions of the superiority of
reason and the romantic insight on the power of imagination. Addison’s’ views have more proximity to the
Romantic ideals.
Giambattista Vico is an Italian
philosopher whose major work is Scienza Nuova. He views human nature as a
product of specific social religious and economic circumstances. Vico gives
importance to both providence and human agency.
David
Hume, a Scottish philosopher is another major figure of Enlightenment. Hume was
also an empiricist like Locke and Berkeley. His major works include A
Treatise of Human Nature, An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals,
Political Discourses, The Natural History of Religion and Three
Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion. Hume’s essay Of the Standard of
Taste raises questions about the standards of aesthetic judgment. According
to him taste differs even among the people nurtured under same conditions. And
finally he arrives at a conclusion that beauty is not that quality which is
present in an object rather it exists in the mind which contemplates them and
each mind perceives a different beauty.
Edmund
Burke is a statesman as well as a political writer. His most famous work includes
Reflections on the Revolution in France. Burke believes that if we
completely depend on reason it cannot accommodate our feelings as well as
considerations of taste and elegance. Like Addison and Hume he too embrace a
broadly empiricist perspective. Burke observes that there is a fixed criteria
for truth and falsehood while regarding the concept of taste we assume that
different people have different taste. He attempts to show there are certain
tastes which are common to all. According to him, since all the organs are same for humans the
way in which they perceive external objects will also be the same. This he
calls the natural taste. A person deviates from this natural taste due to his
acquired taste. He believes that imagination is the source of creative arts but
it is only a representation of what we have experienced through our senses.
As a radical thinker of modern times
Wollstonecraft’s central ideas are influenced by the ideals of French
Revolution. She stood for the economic and educational rights of women. She
declared that women also have the gift of reason like men. She calls for an
extension of the Enlightenment principles of reason, duty, freedom and self
determination to women. She wants rights to be based on reason and rationality
rather than tradition.
WORKS CITED
Habib,
M. A. R. A History of Literary Criticism: From Plato to the Present. New Delhi:
Blackwell, 2006. Print
Habib,
M. A. R. Literary Criticism from Plato to the Present: AN INTRODUCTION. Singapore: Blckwell, 2011.Print
Abrams, M. H. A Glossary of Literary Terms. Wadsworth: Cengage, 2012. Print
Nayar K Pramod. A Short History of English
Literature. New Delhi:
Cambridge University Press, 2009. Print.
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